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Minorities at Risk Project. The complex on the outskirts of in northwestern Somalia dates back around 5,000 years, and has depicting both wild animals and decorated cows. The are twin hills located on the outskirts of Hargeisa that Somalis in the region consider to be a majestic natural landmark. Archived from on 5 October 2016.

Many of the Somali social norms come from their religion. They use things that are common in the Somali language as metaphors. The subclan of have a large presence in the western and northern parts of , eastern region and southwestern as well, The form a majority of the population living in Eastern as well as in district and in the towns of and.

Somaliland

This article needs additional citations for. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Somaliland lies in northwestern Somalia, on the southern coast of the. It is bordered by the remainder of Somalia per international recognition to the east, to the northwest, and to the south and west. Its claimed territory has an area of 176,120 square kilometres 68,000 sq mi , with approximately 4 million residents. The capital and the largest city is , with the population of around 1,500,000 residents. In 1988, the government began a crackdown against the Hargeisa-based SNM and other militant groups, which were among the events that led to the. The conflict left the country's economic and military infrastructure severely damaged. Following the collapse of Barre's government in early 1991, local authorities, led by the SNM, from Somalia on 18 May of the same year and reinstated the borders of the former short-lived independent. The central government maintains with some foreign governments, who have sent delegations to. Ethiopia also maintains a in the region. However, Somaliland's self-proclaimed independence remains unrecognised by any country or international organisation. It is a member of the , an advocacy group whose members consist of indigenous peoples, minorities and unrecognised or occupied territories. See the and Somaliland has been inhabited since at least the. During the Stone Age, the Doian and Hargeisan cultures flourished here. The oldest evidence of burial customs in the Horn of Africa comes from cemeteries in Somalia dating back to the 4th millennium BCE. The stone implements from the Jalelo site in the north were also characterized in 1909 as important artefacts demonstrating the archaeological universality during the Paleolithic between the East and the West. The complex on the outskirts of in northwestern Somalia dates back around 5,000 years, and has depicting both wild animals and decorated cows. Other are found in the northern region, which feature one of the earliest known depictions of a hunter on horseback. The rock art is in the distinctive Ethiopian-Arabian style, dated to 1,000 to 3,000 BCE. Additionally, between the towns of and in northern Somalia lies , the site of numerous cave paintings of real and mythical animals. Each painting has an inscription below it, which collectively have been estimated to be around 2,500 years old. Antiquity and classical era The tomb of Sheikh Isaaq, the founding father of the clan, in , Sanaag. Ancient structures, , ruined cities and stone walls, such as the , are evidence of an old civilization that once thrived in the Somali peninsula. This civilization enjoyed a trading relationship with and since the second millennium BCE, supporting the hypothesis that Somalia or adjacent regions were the location of the ancient. The Puntites traded , spices, gold, ebony, short-horned cattle, ivory and with the Egyptians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Indians, Chinese and Romans through their commercial ports. An Egyptian expedition sent to Punt by the Queen is recorded on the temple reliefs at , during the reign of the Puntite King Parahu and Queen Ati. In 2015, isotopic analysis of ancient baboon mummies from Punt that had been brought to Egypt as gifts indicated that the specimens likely originated from an area encompassing eastern Somalia and the Eritrea-Ethiopia corridor. The is believed to have been domesticated in the Horn region sometime between the 2nd and 3rd millennium BCE. From there, it spread to and the. During the classical period, the northern city-states of , , , , , , , , and developed a lucrative trade network, connecting with merchants from , , , , , the , and the. They used the ancient Somali maritime vessel known as the to transport their cargo. However, Indian merchants continued to trade in the port cities of the Somali peninsula, which was free from Roman interference. For centuries, Indian merchants brought large quantities of cinnamon to Somalia and Arabia from and the. The source of the cinnamon and other spices is said to have been the best-kept secret of Arab and Somali merchants in their trade with the Roman and Greek world; the Romans and Greeks believed the source to have been the Somali peninsula. The collusive agreement among Somali and Arab traders inflated the price of Indian and Chinese cinnamon in North Africa, the Near East, and Europe, and made the cinnamon trade a very profitable revenue generator, especially for the Somali merchants through whose hands large quantities were shipped across sea and land routes. Birth of Islam and the Middle Ages featuring the tomb of Sheikh at Mait. Various Somali Muslim kingdoms were established around this period in the area. In the 14th century, the -based battled the forces of the Ethiopian emperor. The later occupied and environs in the 1500s. Early modern sultanates Women's market in ,. In the period, successor states to the Adal Sultanate and began to flourish in Somalia. This was followed by a British treaty with the Governor of in 1840. These engagements between the British and Somali clans culminated in the formal treaties the British signed with the henceforth 'British Somaliland' clans, which took place between 1884 and 1886 treaties were signed with the Habar Awal, Gadabursi, Habar Toljaala, Habar Garhajis, Esa, and the Warsangali clans , this paved the way for the British to establish a in the region referred to as. The British garrisoned the protectorate from and administered it as part of until 1898. British Somaliland was then administered by the until 1905, and afterwards by the. The British were assisted in their offensives by the and. During the 1914—1918 , Hassan also received aid from the , and, for a time, from the Emperor. The conflict ended when the British the Dervish capital of in February 1920. Although the majority of the combat took place in January of the year, British troops had begun preparations for the assault as early as November 1919. The British forces included elements of the and the. After three weeks of battle, Hassan's Dervishes were defeated, bringing an effective end to their 20-year resistance. Location of the , the former protectorate. In May 1960, the British government stated that it would be prepared to grant independence to the then of British Somaliland, with the intention that the territory would unite with the -administered the former. The legislative councils of both territories agreed to this proposal following a joint conference in. On June 26, 1960, the former British Somaliland protectorate briefly obtained independence as the State of Somaliland, with the Trust Territory of Somaliland following suit five days later. During its brief period of independence, the garnered recognition from thirty-five sovereign states. The following day, on June 27, 1960, the newly convened Somaliland Legislative Assembly approved a bill that would formally allow for the union of the State of Somaliland with the Trust Territory of Somaliland on July 1, 1960. Somali Republic Approximate extent of including the territory of the Somali Republic. The was a short-lived independent state in the territory of present-day northwestern. It was the name assumed by the former in the five days between independence from the on 26 June 1960. A government was formed by , with as and as later to become President, from 1967 to 1969. On 20 July 1961 and through a popular , the Somali people ratified a new , which was first drafted in 1960. In 1967, became Prime Minister, a position to which he was appointed by Shermarke. Shermarke was assassinated two years later by one of his own bodyguards. His murder was quickly followed by a military on 21 October 1969 the day after his funeral , in which the seized power without encountering armed opposition. The putsch was spearheaded by Major General , who at the time commanded the army. The new regime would go on to rule Somalia for the next 21 years. By the mid-1980s, resistance movements supported by Ethiopia's communist administration had sprung up across the country. Barre responded by ordering punitive measures against those he perceived as locally supporting the guerillas, especially in the northern regions. The clampdown included bombing of cities, with the northwestern administrative centre of , a SNM stronghold, among the targeted areas in 1988. The bombardment was led by General , Barre's son-in-law. Exhumed skeletal remains of victims of the found from a mass grave site located in , Somaliland. According to Abou Jeng and other scholars, the Barre regime rule was marked by a targeted brutal persecution of the clan. Mohamed Haji Ingiriis and state that the clampdown by the Barre regime against the Hargeisa-based Somali National Movement targeted the Isaaq clan, to which most members of the SNM belonged. They refer to the clampdown as the Isaaq genocide or Hargeisa holocaust. The number of civilian casualties is estimated to be between 50,000-100,000 according to various sources, while some reports estimate the total civilian deaths to be upwards of 200,000 Isaaq civilians. Along with the deaths, Barre regime bombarded and razed the second and third largest cities in Somalia, and respectively. This displaced an estimated 400,000 local residents to Hartasheikh in Ethiopia; another 400,000 individuals were also internally displaced. The counterinsurgency by the Barre regime against the SNM targeted the rebel group's civilian base of support, escalating into a genocidal onslaught against the Isaaq clan. This led to anarchy and violent campaigns by fragmented militias, which then wrested power at a local level. The Barre regime's persecution was not limited to the Isaaq, as it targeted other clans such as the. The Barre regime collapsed in January 1991. Thereafter, as the political situation in Somaliland stabilized, the displaced people returned to their homes, the militias were demobilized or incorporated into the army, and tens of thousands of houses and businesses were reconstructed from rubble. Somali Civil War May 5 resolution of the grand conference. At the second national meeting on May 18, the SNM Central Committee, with the support of a meeting of elders representing the major clans in the Northern Regions, declared the restoration of the Republic of Somaliland in the territory of the former British Somaliland protectorate and formed a government for the self-declared state. Although the SNM at its inception had a unionist constitution, it eventually began to pursue independence, looking to secede from the rest of Somalia. Under the leadership of , the local administration declared the northwestern Somali territories independent at a conference held in between 27 April 1991 and 15 May 1991. Tuur then became the newly established Somaliland polity's first President, but subsequently renounced the separatist platform in 1994 and began instead to publicly seek and advocate reconciliation with the rest of Somalia under a power-sharing system of governance. Egal was reappointed in 1997, and remained in power until his death on 3 May 2002. The vice-president, , who was during the 1980s the highest-ranking NSS officer in in Siad Barre's government, was sworn in as president shortly afterwards. In 2003, Kahin became the first elected president of Somaliland. Country ratings from Freedom House's Freedom in the World 2017 survey, concerning the state of world freedom in 2016. Free Partly Free Not Free Freedom House ranks the Somaliland government as partly democratic. Seth Kaplan 2011 argues that in contrast to southern Somalia and adjacent territories, Somaliland, the secessionist northwestern portion of Somalia, has built a more democratic mode of governance from the bottom up, with virtually no foreign assistance. Specifically, Kaplan suggests that Somaliland has the most democratic political system in the Horn of Africa because it has been largely insulated from the extremist elements in the rest of Somalia and has viable electoral and legislative systems as well as a robust private sector-dominated economy, unlike neighbouring authoritarian governments. He largely attributes this to Somaliland's integration of customary laws and tradition with modern state structures, which he indicates most post-colonial states in Africa and the Middle East have not had the opportunity to do. Kaplan asserts that this has facilitated cohesiveness and conferred greater governmental legitimacy in Somaliland, as has the territory's comparatively homogeneous population, relatively equitable income distribution, common fear of the south, and absence of interference by outside forces, which has obliged local politicians to observe a degree of accountability. The guurti worked with rebel leaders to set up a new government, and was incorporated into the governance structure, becoming the Parliament's. In 2002, after several extensions of this interim government, Somaliland transitioned to multi-party democracy. The Executive is led by an elected , whose government includes a vice-president and a Council of Ministers. The Council of Ministers, who are responsible for the normal running of government, are nominated by the President and approved by the Parliament's House of Representatives. The President must approve bills passed by the Parliament before they come into effect. Presidential elections are confirmed by the National Elections Commission. The President can serve a maximum of two five-year terms. Lower House of the Somaliland Parliament. Legislative power is held by the. Its upper house is the , and the lower house is the. The lower house is chaired by. Each house has 82 members. Members of the House of Elders are elected indirectly by local communities for six-year terms. The House of Elders shares power in passing laws with the House of Representatives, and also has the role of solving internal conflicts, and an exclusive power to extend the terms of the President and representatives under circumstances that make an election impossible. Members of the House of Representatives are directly elected by the people for five-year terms. However, the Parliament provides weak oversight of the executive branch. Somaliland nationality law defines who is a Somaliland citizen, as well as the procedures by which one may be into Somaliland citizenship or. As such, homosexual acts are illegal in the territory. As of December 2014, Somaliland has three : the , the , and. Under the Somaliland Constitution, a maximum of three political parties is allowed. Foreign relations , 4th President of the Republic of Somaliland, speaking at in 2010. Somaliland has political contacts with its neighbours and , as well as with , , the and the micro-nation of. On 17 January 2007, the EU sent a delegation for foreign affairs to discuss future co-operation. The AU has also sent a foreign minister to discuss the future of international acknowledgment, and on 29 and 30 January 2007, the ministers stated that they would discuss acknowledgement with the organisation's member states. In early 2006, the extended an official invitation to the Somaliland government to attend the royal opening of the in. The move was seen as an act of recognition by the Welsh Assembly of the breakaway government's legitimacy. The made no comment on the invitation. Wales is home to a significant Somali community from Somaliland. In 2007, a delegation led by President Kahin was present at the in ,. Although Somaliland has applied to join the under , its application is still pending. On 24 September 2010, , Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs, stated that the United States would be modifying its strategy in Somalia and would seek deeper engagement with the governments of Somaliland and Puntland while continuing to support the Somali Transitional Government. Carson said the US would send aid workers and diplomats to Puntland and Somaliland and alluded to the possibility of future development projects. However, Carson emphasised that the US would not extend formal recognition to either region. States with consulate or representative office in Somaliland The then UK Minister for Africa, MP, met President Silanyo of Somaliland in November 2010 to discuss ways in which to increase the UK's engagement with Somaliland. And we are very happy with the way the international community has been dealing with us, particularly the UK, the US, other European nations and our neighbours who continue to seek recognition. The leader of UKIP, , met with Ali Aden Awale, Head of the Somaliland UK Mission on Somaliland's national day, 18 May, in 2015, to express UKIP's support for Somaliland. It is about time the UK and the rest of the international community recognised Somaliland's case for recognition. It's about time peace was rewarded. For the UK to turn its back on their legitimate demands for sovereignty, is wrong. It is extraordinary that we have not been lobbying for their admittance to the Commonwealth. In recent years we have supported the admission of countries such as Mozambique which have no historic links to Britain, but Somaliland, a former protectorate is left in the cold. In 2011, Somaliland and the neighbouring Puntland region each entered a security-related with the. Border disputes Main article: Somaliland continues to claim the entire area of the former. It is currently in control of the western half of the former British Somaliland, with northeastern having declared itself a separate, unrecognised autonomous state within Somalia in July 2007, and the disputed southeastern state had been under the control of neighbouring. A coalition of Gadabuursi intellectuals hailing from the westernmost province have threatened to secede if Somaliland's independence is recognised. Tensions between Puntland and Somaliland escalated into violence several times between 2002 and 2009. In October 2004, and again in April and October 2007, armed forces of Somaliland and Puntland clashed near the town of , the capital of Sool region. In October 2007, Somaliland troops took control of the town. While celebrating Puntland's 11th anniversary on 2 August 2009, Puntland officials vowed to recapture Las Anod. Somaliland forces took control of the town of in eastern on 10 July 2008, along with positions 5 km 3 mi east of the town. The defence forces completed their operations on 9 July 2008 after the Maakhir and Puntland militia in the area left their positions, but control of the territory was later assumed by Puntland as Maakhir was incorporated into the autonomous region in January 2009. In the late 2000s, HBM-SSC Hoggaanka Badbaadada iyo Mideynta SSC , a local unionist group based in was formed with the goal to establish its own regional administration Sool, Sanaag and Cayn, or SSC. This later evolved into , which was established in 2012. The local administration and its constituents does not recognise the Somaliland government's claim to sovereignty or to its territory. Celebrating Somaliland'ś Independence Day, 18 May 2016 In 2010, the formation of a new autonomous region within a federal Somalia was also declared in the Awdal province. Referred to as or the Awdal State, the local administration and the region's residents do not recognise the Somaliland government's claim to sovereignty or to their territory. Military Somaliland Armed Forces The are the main military command in Somaliland. Along with the Police Force and all other internal security forces, they are overseen by Somaliland's Ministry of Defence. The current head of Somaliland's Armed Forces is the Minister of Defence, Mudane Ahmed Haj Adami. Its armoured vehicles and tanks are mostly of Soviet design, though there are some ageing Western vehicles and tanks in its arsenal. The Somaliland Navy often referred to as a Coast Guard by the , despite a crippling lack of equipment and formal training, has apparently had some success at curbing both piracy and illegal fishing within Somaliland waters. Somaliland is situated in northwestern Somalia. It lies between the 08°00' — 11°30' parallel north of the equator and between 42°30' — 49°00' east of. It is bordered by to the west, to the south, and the region of Somalia to the east. Somaliland has a 740 kilometres 460 mi coastline with the majority lying along the. In terms of landmass, Somaliland's territory is comparable to that of , with an area of 176,120 km 2 68,000 sq mi. Somaliland's climate is a mixture of wet and dry conditions. The northern part of the region is hilly, and in many places the altitude ranges between 900 and 2,100 metres 3,000 and 6,900 ft above sea level. The , and Woqooyi Galbeed regions are fertile and mountainous, while is mostly with little fertile greenery around. The Awdal region is also known for its offshore islands, and. A scrub-covered, semi-desert plain referred as the lies parallel to the Gulf of Aden littoral. With a width of twelve kilometres 7. When the rains arrive, the Guban's low bushes and grass clumps transform into lush vegetation. This coastal strip is part of the. Extending from the northwest of to several kilometres west of the city of , it features Somalia's highest , , which sits at an elevation of about 2,416 metres 7,927 ft. The rugged east-west ranges of the Karkaar Mountains also lie to the interior of the Gulf of Aden littoral. In the central regions, the northern mountain ranges give way to shallow plateaus and typically dry watercourses that are referred to locally as the. The Ogo's western plateau, in turn, gradually merges into the , an important grazing area for livestock. Climate Somaliland is located north of the Equator. The average daily temperatures range from 25 to 35 °C 77 to 95 °F. The sun passes vertically overhead twice a year, on 22 March and 23 September. Somaliland consists of three main topographic zones: 1. A Coastal Plain Guban 2 The Coastal Range Oogo 3 A Plateau Hawd The Coastal Plain Guban is a zone with high temperatures and low rainfall. Summer temperatures in the region easily average over 100 °F 38 °C. However, temperatures come down during the winter, and both human and livestock populations increase dramatically in the region. The Coastal Range Ogo is a high plateau to the immediate south of Guban. Its elevation ranges from 6,000 feet 1,800 m above sea level in the West to 7,000 feet 2,100 m in the East. Rainfall is heavier there than in Guban, although it varies considerably within the zone. The Plateau Hawd region lies to the south of Ogo range. It is generally more heavily populated during the wet season, when surface water is available. It is also an important area for grazing. Somalilanders recognize four seasons in the year; GU and Hagaa comprise spring and summer in that order, and Dayr and Jiilaal correspond to autumn and winter respectively. GU, which is the first, or major, rainy season late March, April, May, and early June , experiences the heaviest rainfall in Ogo range and Hawd. This constitutes the period of fresh grazing and abundant surface water. It is also the breeding season for livestock. Hagaa from late June through August is usually dry although there are often some scattered showers in the Ogo range, these are known as Karan rains. Hagaa tends to be hot and windy in most parts of the country. Jilaal, or winter, falls in the coolest and driest months of the year from late November to early March. It is a season of thirst. Hawd receive virtually no rainfall in winter. The humidity of the country varies from 63% in the dry season to 82% in the wet season. Climate data for Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high °C °F 31. ORG Climate data for Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Average high °C °F 24. The , which cannot easily be exchanged outside Somaliland on account of the nation's lack of recognition, is regulated by the , the , which was established constitutionally in 1994. It may not be considered valid tender in disputed areas such as or the district of , which are not administered as part of Somaliland and continue to use the despite being claimed by the Somaliland government. As a result, the government relies mainly upon tax receipts and from the large , which contribute immensely to Somaliland's economy. Remittances come to Somaliland through , the largest of which is , one of the few Somali money transfer companies that conform to modern money-transfer regulations. Analysts say that Dahabshiil may handle around two-thirds of that figure and as much as half of it reaches Somaliland alone. Since the late 1990s, service provisions have significantly improved through limited government provisions and contributions from , religious groups, the international community especially the diaspora , and the growing private sector. Local and municipal governments have been developing key public service provisions such as water in Hargeisa and education, electricity, and security in Berbera. In 2009, the BCIMR , based in , opened a branch in and became the first bank in the country since the 1990 collapse of the. In 2014, became the region's first commercial bank. In 2017 from Mogadishu opened a branch in Hargeisa. A shopping mall in downtown. Various firms also have branches in Somaliland. Among these companies is , one of the largest operators in Somaliland. Founded in 2002 with the objective of supplying the local market with telecommunications services such as , , and , it has an extensive network that covers all of Somaliland's major cities and more than 40 districts in both Somalia and Somaliland. Other telecommunication firms serving the region include , and. Sheep, camels, and cattle are shipped from the Berbera port and sent to Gulf Arab countries, such as Saudi Arabia. Mining also has potential, though simple represents the extent of current operations, despite the presence of diverse quantities of mineral deposits. The and caves at , situated on the outskirts of , are a popular local tourist attraction. Totaling ten caves, they were discovered by a archaeological team in 2002 and are believed to date back around 5,000 years. The government and locals keep the safe and only a restricted number of tourists are allowed entry. Other notable sights include the Freedom Arch in Hargeisa and the in the city centre. Natural attractions are very common around the region. The are twin hills located on the outskirts of Hargeisa that Somalis in the region consider to be a majestic natural landmark. The historic town of is located near Berbera and is home to old British colonial buildings that have remained untouched for over forty years. Another equally famous historic city is. Zeila was once part of the , a dependency of and and a major trade city during the 19th century. The city has been visited for its old colonial landmarks, offshore and coral reefs, towering cliffs, and beach. The culture of Somaliland has also attracted tourists. Most nomads live in the countryside. Bus services operate in , , , and. There are also road transportation services between the major towns and adjacent villages, which are operated by different types of vehicles. Among these are , , and LGV. Other major airports in the region include the. In August 2012 Somaliland government awarded license to explore oil within its territory. Results of a surface seep study completed early in 2015 confirmed the outstanding potential offered in SL-10B and SL-13 block and Oodweyne block with estimated oil reserves of 1 billion barrel each. Genel Energy is set to drill exploration well for SL-10B and SL-13 block in Buur-Dhaab 20 kilometers northwest of by the end of 2018. Map showing the distribution of the in the. Many people in Somaliland speak two of the three official languages: , and , although the rate of bilingualism is lower in rural areas. Article 6 of the Constitution of 2001 designates the official language of Somaliland to be Somali, though Arabic is a mandatory subject in school and is used in around the region and is spoken and taught in schools. English was proclaimed an official language later, outside the constitution. The Somali language belongs to the branch of the family. Its nearest relatives are the and languages. Somali is the best documented of the Cushitic languages, with academic studies of it dating from before 1900. Northern Somali or Northern-Central Somali forms the basis for Standard Somali. Benaadir also known as Coastal Somali is spoken on the coast from to south of , including , as well as in the immediate hinterland. The coastal dialects have additional which do not exist in Standard Somali. Maay is principally spoken by the Digil and Mirifle clans in the southern areas of Somalia. Of these, the is the most widely used, and has been the official writing script in Somalia since the government of former President of Somalia Siad Barre formally introduced it in October 1972. The script was developed by the Somali linguist specifically for the Somali language, and uses all letters of the English Latin alphabet except p, v and z. Besides Ahmed's Latin script, other orthographies that have been used for centuries for writing Somali include the long-established and , in addition to various indigenous writing systems developed in the twentieth century. Religion Traditional Somali tablet. With few exceptions, Somalis in Somaliland and elsewhere are , the majority belonging to the branch of and the school of. As with southern Somali coastal towns such as and , there is also a presence of , Islamic mysticism; particularly the Arab Rifa'iya. Through the influence of the diaspora from Yemen and , stricter also has a noticeable presence. Though traces of pre-Islamic traditional religion exist in Somaliland, Islam is dominant to the Somali sense of national identity. Many of the Somali social norms come from their religion. For example, most Somali women wear a when they are in public. In addition, religious Somalis abstain from and , and also try to avoid receiving or paying any form of interest. Muslims generally congregate on Friday afternoons for a sermon and group prayer. Somaliland has very few. In 1913, during the early part of the colonial era, there were virtually no Christians in the Somali territories, with about 100—200 followers coming from the schools and orphanages of the handful of missions in the British Somaliland protectorate. The small number of Christians in the region today mostly come from similar Catholic institutions in , , and. Somaliland falls within the Episcopal Area of the Horn of Africa as part of Somalia, under the. However, there are no current congregations in the territory. The is designated to serve the area as part of Somalia. However, since 1990 there has been no Bishop of Mogadishu, and the Bishop of Djibouti acts as Apostolic Administrator. The also indicates that there are no Adventist members. Largest cities People in Somaliland has a population of about 3. As of 2006 , the largest clan family in Somaliland is the , making up 80% of the total population. The populations of five major cities in Somaliland — , , , and — are predominantly Isaaq. Of the minority clans, the of the comes second by population, and thirdly the of the clan. The groupings of the Somali people are important , and have a central role in Somali culture and politics. Clans are and are often divided into sub-clans, sometimes with many sub-divisions. To extend ties of alliance, marriage is often to another from a different clan. Thus, for example, a recent study observed that in 89 marriages contracted by men of the clan, 55 62% were with women of Dhulbahante sub-clans other than those of their husbands; 30 33. Clan settlements The subclan of the form the majority of the population living in both the northern and western portions of the region, including the cities and towns of Northern , , , , and. The also have a strong presence in Northern region as well, principally around the town of and they also partially inhabit the city of as well. The and subclans of the have a sizable presence among the population inhabiting the southern and eastern portions of region including Southern and. The are also represented well in western region, mainly in the towns of and Western. The also form a majority of the population inhabiting the western and central areas of region as well, including the regional capital as well as. The subclan of have a large presence in the western and northern parts of , eastern region and southwestern as well, The form a majority of the population living in Eastern as well as in district and in the towns of and. Eastern region's residents mainly hail from the , a subdivision of the confederation of sub-clans, and are concentrated at. The Dhulbahante clans also settle in the in the region, and the southern and eastern parts of in. The , another Harti Darod sub-clan, constitute a large number of residents in the eastern , and their population is mainly concentrated around. The and primarily live in the region, with the centered at , and the concentrated around the border at. It is considered polite for one to leave a little bit of food on one's plate after finishing a meal at another's home. This tells the host that one has been given enough food. If one were to clean their plate that would indicate that one is still hungry. Most Somalis do not take this rule so seriously, but it is certainly not impolite to leave a few bits of food on one's plate. Somali breakfast typically includes a flatbread called , as well as , toast, harakoo, cereal, and made of or. Lunch can be a mixture of rice or pasta with meat and sauce. Maraq is made of vegetables, meat and beans and is usually eaten with flatbread or bread. Somali poetry is mainly oral, with both male and female poets. They use things that are common in the Somali language as metaphors. Almost all Somalis are and Islam is vitally important to the Somali sense of. Most Somalis do not belong to a specific or sect and can pray in any mosque they find. Two of the most important are and , which marks the end of the fasting month. Families get dressed up to visit one another, and money is donated to the poor. Other holidays include 26 June and 18 May, which celebrate British Somaliland's independence and the Somaliland region's establishment, respectively; the latter, however, is not recognised by the international community. In the culture, where one's possessions are frequently moved, there is little reason for the to be highly developed. Somalis embellish and decorate their woven and wooden milk jugs haamo; the most decorative jugs are made in as well as wooden headrests. Traditional dance is also important, though mainly as a form of courtship among young people. One such dance known as Ciyaar Soomaali is a local favourite. The custom of applying henna dates back to antiquity. During special occasions, a Somali woman's hands and feet are expected to be covered in decorative. Girls and women usually apply or decorate their hands and feet in henna on festive celebrations like or weddings. The henna designs vary from very simple to highly intricate. Somali designs vary, with some more modern and simple while others are traditional and intricate. Traditionally, only women apply it as , as it is considered a custom. Henna is not only applied on the hands and feet but is also used as a. Somali men and women alike use henna as a dye to change their. Women are free to apply henna on their hair as most of the time they are wearing a. Hassig, Zawiah Abdul Latif, Somalia, Marshall Cavendish: 2007 , p. Retrieved 31 May 2009. United Nations Population Fund. Retrieved 17 August 2017. Accessed 24 April 2017. Retrieved 2 February 2010. Retrieved 28 March 2016. Archived from PDF on 25 March 2009. Retrieved 2 February 2010. Retrieved 28 March 2016. Retrieved 28 March 2016. Retrieved 15 February 2014. Archived from PDF on 27 February 2012. Retrieved 2 February 2010. Retrieved 8 July 2012. Archived from PDF on 18 April 2010. Retrieved 2 February 2010. University of Michigan: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. Retrieved 2 February 2010. 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University Press of America. Retrieved 15 May 2017. Academy for Peace and Development. Retrieved 2 June 2017. On 18th May 1991 at this second national meeting, the SNM Central Committee, with the support of a meeting of elders representing the major clans in the Northern Regions, declared the restoration of the Republic of Somaliland, covering the same area as that of the former British Protectorate. Archived from on 28 May 2012. Retrieved 28 March 2016. Archived from on 31 January 2014. Retrieved 6 August 2017. The Republic of Somaliland, the secessionist northwestern slice of Somalia that declared independence in 1991, has a far better democratic track record than any of its neighbors despite—or, perhaps, because of—a dearth of assistance from the international community. Retrieved 6 August 2017. Abutting the Gulf of Aden just south of the Red Sea, across the water from Yemen and Saudi Arabia, and bordered by Ethiopia and the rest of Somalia, this strategically important territory is not even recognized by the international community but undoubtedly has the most democratic political system in the entire Horn of Africa. In contrast to the chaos and extremist threats that continue to plague much of the rest of Somalia—and unlike the authoritarian regimes that throng its neighborhood—Somaliland has held three consecutive competitive elections since its constitutional referendum in 2001, has a parliament controlled by opposition parties, and boasts a vibrant economy dominated by the private sector. Somaliland has achieved these successes by constructing a set of governing bodies rooted in traditional Somali concepts of governance by consultation and consent. In contrast to most postcolonial states in Africa and the Middle East, Somaliland has had a chance to administer itself using customary norms, values, and relationships. In fact, its integration of traditional ways of governance within a modern state apparatus has helped it to achieve greater cohesion and legitimacy and— not coincidentally—create greater room for competitive elections and public criticism than exists in most similarly endowed territories. This cohesiveness—which makes Somaliland sharply distinct from both Somalia and most other African states—has combined with the enduring strength of traditional institutions of self-governance to mold a unique form of democracy. The New York Times. Retrieved 27 July 2012. Retrieved 28 July 2012. Retrieved 28 July 2012. Retrieved 1 July 2010. Retrieved 13 November 2017. Retrieved 28 March 2016. Retrieved 28 March 2016. Retrieved 2 August 2016. Retrieved 19 October 2014. Retrieved 22 July 2007. Retrieved 2 April 2010. 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Archived from on 2 March 2001. Retrieved 28 March 2016. Laitin, Politics, Language, and Thought: The Somali Experience, University Of Chicago Press: 1977 , pp. Lewis, Saints and Somalis: popular Islam in a clan-based society, The Red Sea Press: 1998 , p. Retrieved 18 October 2015. Retrieved 28 March 2016. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved 28 March 2016. Archived from on 1 October 2011. Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada. Retrieved 27 August 2015. The second largest clan of the region, and that of the current president, is the Gadabuursi. Penning de 1 January 2005. Gadabursi, the second largest clan in Somaliland, was peacefully elected as president. Lewis, Blood and Bone: The Call of Kinship in Somali Society, Red Sea Press: 1994 , p. Danish Immigration Service: 7. Retrieved 16 November 2017. Retrieved 14 November 2017. Retrieved 14 November 2017. New York: Robert Appleton.

Retrieved November 24, 2011. Retrieved 23 July 2007. From there, it spread to and the. The Puntites tradedspices, gold, ebony, short-horned cattle, ivory and with the Egyptians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Indians, Chinese and Romans through their commercial ports. Archived from PDF on 27 Somaliland dating sites 2012. Archived from on 5 October 2016. In 2015, isotopic analysis of ancient baboon mummies from Punt that had been brought to Egypt as gifts indicated that the specimens likely originated from an area encompassing eastern Somalia and the Eritrea-Ethiopia corridor. Retrieved 11 May 2013. The local administration and its constituents does not recognise the Somaliland government's claim to sovereignty or to its territory. It is a member of thean advocacy group whose members consist of indigenous peoples, minorities and unrecognised or occupied territories.